Abstract
This article examines the travelogues of European writers (Tancoigne, Fraser, Flandin) to analyze the construction of the concept of "same-sex desire" in the early Qajar period. These narratives interpreted cultural markers - such as long locks of hair or dances of Iranian youths - as indicative of homoerotic tendencies. The central objective is to decipher the motivations and meanings underlying the authors’ accounts, probing the subjective inclinations and intentions that shaped their portrayals. Employing a Weberian interpretive framework, the study investigates how the travelers’ inner motivations, influenced by ideological, cultural, and colonial contexts, informed their representations.The Weberian approach is based on a combination of "direct observation" (examining explicit data from travelogues, such as the authors’ nationalities, purposes for visiting Iran, and reasons for composing) with "indirect observation" (analyzing the contexts and latent intentions of the travelogues, comparing them with contemporaneous sources and examination ofunderlying assumptions), utilizing Weber’s "ideal type" annd "rationality" to uncover the internal logic of these accounts. Findings reveal that depictions of homosexuality were rarely substantiated by historical evidence. Instead, they were amplified by a confluence of factors: reliance on prior travel writers’ tropes, colonial-era Orientalist assumptions, the authors’ own moral-cultural values, and a lack of familiarity with Iranian societal norms. Furthermore, discrepancies among travelers’ reports and deliberate manipulations in translations contributed to these skewed representations. Notably, the narratives often diverged from accounts by fellow travelers, underscoring the role of subjective bias and external ideological frameworks in shaping perceptions of Iranian culture. The study thus highlights the interplay of colonial discourse, cultural misunderstanding, and textual mediation in constructing contested notions of same-sex desire in 19th-century European travel literature.
Keywords: Iran, European Travelogues, Homosexuality, Qajar, Weber.
Introduction
Historical narratives exercise profound influence over contemporary perceptions of culture, ethics, and social dynamics. Among the most contentious and least critically examined aspects of Qajar historiography are the depictions of "same-sex desire" (referred to in the text as ham-o, denoting same-sex sexual acts rather than a modern identity) found in European travelogues. During the early Qajar period, numerous European diplomats, soldiers, and artists visited Iran, carrying with them the intellectual heritage of the Enlightenment alongside emerging colonial ambitions. This study critically investigates the travelogues of Joseph Tancoigne, James Baillie Fraser, and Eugène Flandin—written between 1807 and 1840—to deconstruct how they fabricated and solidified the concept of rampant homosexuality within Iranian society. The central research problem is not merely the verification of such practices, but the exploration of the subjective mental frameworks and "value rationalities" that led European observers to interpret cultural markers—such as long hair, dance, and poetry—as definitive evidence of sexual deviance. By situating these texts within the broader discourse of Orientalism and comparing them against contemporary indigenous contexts, this research aims to demystify these historical accounts and expose the ideological scaffolding that supported them.
Material & Methods
The research corpus comprises a qualitative content analysis of over forty travelogues from the early Qajar era (spanning from Agha Mohammad Khan to the end of Mohammad Shah’s reign). From this broader pool, the study conducts an in-depth case study of three specific authors: Tancoigne (French), Fraser (British), and Flandin (French). These figures were selected for their explicit focus on male behavior, aesthetics, and alleged homoerotic tendencies. Methodologically, the study employs Max Weber’s interpretive sociology (Verstehen) to decipher the internal logic of the authors. The Weberian approach is applied through two analytical lenses: Direct Observation: An examination of explicit textual data, such as the authors' nationalities, professional missions, duration of stay, and stated motivations for writing. Indirect Observation: An analysis of latent meanings, underlying assumptions, and the historical context of textual production. Furthermore, the study utilizes Weber’s concept of the "Ideal Type"- an abstract model highlighting key features of a phenomenon- to demonstrate how travelers created a stylized, exaggerated image of the "Oriental male." The analysis further categorizes the authors' narratives through Weber’s four types of rationality (traditional, affective, value-rational, and instrumental) to determine whether their descriptions were grounded in empirical fact or pre-existing moral biases.
Discussion & Results
The analysis reveals that European depictions of same-sex desire in Qajar Iran were rarely substantiated by historical evidence or deep cultural comprehension. Instead, they functioned as "Ideal Type" constructions influenced by intertextuality (reliance on previous travelers like Chardin), moral superiority, and colonial discourse. Social Context vs. Narrative: Contrary to European claims of unchecked vice, Qajar society was strictly regulated by religious norms. Prominent clerics of the era, such as Kashif al-Ghita, issued rulings against sodomy, and historical records indicate such acts were subject to punishment. Travelers largely ignored these legal realities to curate a narrative of Eastern decadence. Tancoigne and Value Rationality: Writing in 1807, Tancoigne interpreted the long locks and dances of Iranian youths through a lens of "value rationality," judging them against post-revolutionary French morality. Lacking access to the female sphere (the andaruni), he projected eroticism onto the homosocial male sphere. His descriptions of "lascivious" dancing boys were heavily influenced by the Safavid-era writings of Jean Chardin, leading him to view distinct cultural aesthetics as evidence of moral depravity. Comparisons with his contemporaries (e.g., Dupré) show that Tancoigne’s eroticization was subjective and not universally observed. Fraser and Colonial Discourse: Fraser’s narrative (1820s-1830s) reflects a British colonial gaze. He conflated the appearance of Kurdish youths, the traveler employed attributes associated with femininity as a means of denigrating the "Oriental Other" and reinforcing cultural hierarchies. His misinterpretation of the "Loti" social class- often rebellious ruffians, not sexual workers demonstrates how political antagonism (due to his diplomatic failures) translated into cultural character assassination. Flandin and the Demographic Myth: Flandin (1840) among several explanatory factors, identified the prevalence of same-sex behavior as one of the causes of population decline, framing it within a moralizing and pathologizing narrative rather than empirical demographic analysis. Flandin’s attempt to link "moral deviation" directly to "national weakness" served to validate European rationality and virility against Eastern effeminacy and decay.
Conclusion
The study concludes that the phenomenon of "homosexuality" as portrayed in early Qajar travelogues was largely a discursive invention rather than an objective reality. Tancoigne, Fraser, and Flandin did not act as neutral observers; rather, they were active agents in constructing a "reality" that aligned with their specific ideological needs and the expectations of their European readership. Their narratives were shaped by a cycle of textual reproduction, where tropes initiated by earlier travelers were repeated and amplified to confirm Orientalist stereotypes. By applying the Weberian framework, it becomes humidity evident that these texts offer less insight into the sexual history of Iran and more into the "mental horizons," anxieties, and moral arrogance of 19th-century Europe. The travelers transformed ambiguous cultural signifiers into definitive proofs of vice to establish a hierarchy of civilizations, thereby justifying colonial intervention and reinforcing the self-image of the West as rational and moral, in contrast to the irrational and East.