Abstract
In studies of ancient Greek historiography, Xenophon's Cyropaedia has always been of interest, both as a literary model and as a book for Teaching governance. This work is also important for understanding the place of the Iranian style of governance among the thought trends of ancient Greece. Although Xenophon's writings about Cyrus' life and actions have been widely criticized and evaluated by scholars, there is no doubt about the influence of these writings on historians, political thinkers, and rulers of Europe in later periods. Xenophon's Cyropaedia is considered the most important surviving historiographical text of the classical ancient era, both in the field of political philosophy, in the field of romantic literature, and as a guide to teaching governance. The present study, using a historical method and a descriptive-analytical approach, examines the role of the Cyropaedia in three important movements in European history in the early modern period: the Italian Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment. The research findings show that among the Greek and Roman texts of the ancient period, Xenophon's Cyropaedia had the greatest impact on European thought and monarchical systems from the Renaissance to the French Revolution.
Keywords: Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Enlightenment, Political Philosophy
 
Introduction
The present study investigates why and how Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, the Greek historian and philosopher, was rediscovered in early modern Europe. Among Greek authors, Xenophon possessed extensive knowledge and firsthand experience regarding the political structure of the Achaemenid Empire, as well as a deep understanding of its early rulers—particularly Cyrus the Great, its founder. In Cyropaedia, Xenophon not only describes Cyrus’s style of governance for a Greek readership through a synthesis of history and biography, but also articulates his own ideas concerning the ideal kingship and the qualities of a good king. After Xenophon, other thinkers and political philosophers continued to study this work, and it attracted the attention of many rulers—from Alexander the Great to Roman emperors.
In early modern Europe, Xenophon’s Cyropaedia was among the most significant Greek works to be translated and studied by historians and political thinkers. Monarchs and leaders across European countries welcomed it as a handbook of political theory and practice. The central question of the present study is why and how, among the many historical, philosophical, and political works of classical antiquity, Xenophon’s Cyropaedia attained such prominence finding its way into royal courts, libraries, and intellectual circles.
 
Materials and Methods
This study has been conducted using a historical method with a descriptive–analytical approach. The materials and data necessary for analysis and evaluation were collected and organized from primary sources dating to both antiquity and the early modern period. First, through an examination of the prevailing political and philosophical currents of the ancient Greek world, the significance of Cyropaedia among the works of historians and philosophers, as well as Xenophon’s purpose in writing the life of Cyrus the Great, are considered. In the next stage, the intellectual and social contexts and the reasons behind the interest of early modern European writers and philosophers in Cyropaedia are explored.
The focus of this study is on the role of Cyropaedia during the early modern period as a handbook for European princes and on its influence in shaping political systems based on patriarchal monarchy rather than lordly lordship.
 
 
Discussion and Results
Xenophon’s Cyropaedia attracted the attention of European thinkers and rulers through three major intellectual currents in early modern history. The first occurred during the Italian Renaissance and its subsequent spread to other countries. In this phase, the translation of Cyropaedia into various European languages enabled historians and political philosophers to become acquainted with Cyrus the Great’s model of governance and to compare him with other rulers of the ancient world. During this period, Machiavelli referred to Cyrus in his works as a monarch who could serve as a model for contemporary rulers.
The second phase corresponds to the period of the Reformation and its aftermath, during which Xenophon’s Cyropaedia became one of the most widely translated and studied works by European scholars. In Germany, France, and England—countries where the Reformation brought fundamental changes to the relationship between religion and the state—Cyropaedia emerged as a key text in political thought and a practical guide for rulers. In England, during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and James I (1603–1625), Xenophon’s work was a favorite in both the royal court and political and literary circles. In France, it was among the influential works shaping the thought of Jean Bodin (1530–1596), the political philosopher of the tumultuous Reformation era.
In his renowned work, The Six Books of the Republic, Jean Bodin compares three types of monarchy: hereditary royal monarchy, lordly monarchy, and tyrannical monarchy. Drawing on Xenophon’s Cyropaedia and referencing the kingdoms of the Medes and the Persians, Bodin classifies Cyrus’s monarchy as a royal monarchy in which the ruler exercises authority to improve the welfare of society. In this respect, he distinguishes it from both lordly and tyrannical forms of monarchy.
The third phase in early modern Europe corresponds to the Enlightenment, which many historians date from the end of the Thirty Years’ War and the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. During the Enlightenment, European historians and thinkers’ interest in antiquity and powerful monarchies, such as the Achaemenid Empire and the Roman Empire, led to the creation of numerous works about these states. In this period, Xenophon’s Cyropaedia not only continued to be regarded as a valuable text in political thought and ancient history, but also inspired writers to produce histories and narratives about the Achaemenids. For instance, the German historian Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren (1760–1842) authored History of the Achaemenid Empire, in which he described Cyrus based on Xenophon’s account.
In the final years of the eighteenth century, Cyropaedia attracted the attention of the founders of the newly established United States. Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), among others, studied the work as a guide to kingship and recommended it to his contemporaries.
 
Conclusion
The findings of this study indicate that, among the historical and philosophical works of classical antiquity, Xenophon’s Cyropaedia was more than any other text recognized in early modern Europe by translators, political thinkers, and rulers as a model of ideal governance. The translation and study of this work ensured that Cyrus the Great remained one of the most celebrated ancient rulers, and in some early modern monarchies, Cyropaedia was used as a handbook for governance, taught and consulted within royal courts.