Abstract
Kharijite literature is a full-fledged mirror of the sect's thoughts, efforts, and events that will reveal much unsaid. Some ideologues have considered the Kharijite opposition to be limited to the rule of Imam Ali (as) despite their opposition and their very determined efforts to overthrow the Umayyad rule. This descriptive-analytical study is conducted to explain the critical approach of the Sufris as one of the Kharijite sects to the policy of the Umayyads as the ruling policy of the time by a case study of the literature of this sect. The results show that Sufri literature explicitly criticized the Umayyad rulers. Some of the most important themes in Kharijite literature, including the Sufri sect, are the oppression and incompetence of the Umayyads, the courage and fearlessness of the Kharijites in the struggle, their indifference to the world, their eager acceptance of death, and their pure intolerance of Umayyad rule and their agents. Most of these themes are in the form of epic poems written to provoke the Kharijite armies and prepare the ground for the defeat of the Umayyads. As one of the poetic themes of the Kharijite sect, the elegy aims to provoke a sense of revenge against the Umayyads and prepare the audience for wider uprisings. The Kharijite eulogy has been used only in the honor of the fighters of this sect and to explain their characteristics.
Keywords: Criticism, Politics, Umayyads, Literary Commitment, Poetry, Kharijites.
Introduction
The Khawarij emerged as a significant force in the early Islamic world due to political and religious factors in the mid-first century AH. Their opposition to rulers, particularly following the transfer of the caliphate to Mu'awiya in 41 AH, led to revolts against Umayyad rule. All Khawarij sects shared a fundamental belief in the necessity of rebelling against unjust rulers and actively fighting oppressive governance. Over time, their movement evolved into a broader anti-Umayyad aristocratic movement, posing a sustained challenge to the ruling elite.
Beyond political resistance, the poetry of the Khawarij reflected their ideological struggles. Like other political factions of the time, their poetry took on a distinctly political tone, serving as a medium to express their beliefs and criticisms of the Umayyads. This makes the study of Khawarij poetry particularly valuable, as it provides insight into their worldview and doctrinal motivations.
Several scholarly works have explored aspects of Khawarij history and ideology. For example, Sharareh Azizi's dissertation examines the historical and comparative perspectives of Khawarij and Murji'ah beliefs without focusing on literary elements. Zohreh Kiani Nejad conducted a historical analysis of Khawarij up to the end of the Abbasid era. Meanwhile, Mohammad Derafshan analyzed the themes and objectives of Shiite and Khawarij poetry during early Islam and the Umayyad period, though his work did not specifically address their critical stance against Umayyad rule.
This study aims to analyze the poetry of the Sufriyyah sect, addressing questions about how their verses reflect opposition to Umayyad policies and which poetic themes were most frequently used for this purpose. A dedicated investigation into Khawarij poets and writers can help clarify their commitment to their sectarian principles in resisting Umayyad rule.
 
Materials & Methods
This study adopts a descriptive and analytical approach to examine Khawarij poetry, with a focus on the Sufriyyah sect’s critique of Umayyad rule. Primary sources include classical Arabic poetry collections and historical chronicles documenting Khawarij poets, while secondary sources provide scholarly interpretations and contextual analyses. Poems were selected based on explicit references to Umayyad governance and ideological significance. The analysis categorizes verses by themes such as rebellion, justice, and condemnation of Umayyad policies, while also exploring rhetorical and symbolic elements to understand their function as a tool of resistance. A historical framework ensures accurate interpretation, linking poetic content to socio-political conditions, and comparative analysis further highlights ideological shifts within Khawarij poetry. This methodological approach offers a comprehensive understanding of how literary expression reflected opposition to Umayyad rule.
 
Discussion and Results
The Khawarij movement was rooted in opposition to oppressive governance, particularly the rule of the Umayyads. They viewed Umayyad rulers as unjust and distant from Islamic principles, condemning their policies and advocating for resistance against tyranny. Their poetry reflects this ideological stance, emphasizing rebellion against unjust rulers and portraying the Umayyad court as a center of corruption. The Khawarij believed that distancing oneself from Umayyad rulers was not only necessary but a moral obligation, aligning with their core principle of enjoining good and forbidding evil.
Prominent Khawarij poets, such as Qatari ibn al-Fuja’a, openly criticized fellow members who aligned themselves with Umayyad rulers, urging them to repent and return to the path of righteousness. The poetic verses emphasized themes of betrayal and the deceptive nature of Umayyad governance, portraying it as a force that blinds people to truth. By invoking Quranic imagery and moral exhortation, Khawarij poets framed resistance as a divine duty rather than merely a political struggle.
Their literature also underscored the broader societal opposition to Umayyad rule, portraying the rulers as illegitimate oppressors. Poets such as Abdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi likened the Umayyads to tyrants whose rule must be dismantled to restore justice. Their verses called for active resistance, presenting the overthrow of the Umayyads as a pathway to restoring rightful governance.
Additionally, Khawarij poetry frequently contrasted their ideals with the perceived decadence and materialism of the Umayyads. They condemned the rulers’ indulgence in worldly pleasures and portrayed their governance as inherently corrupt. This theme reinforced the Khawarij belief that their own asceticism and devotion to faith were superior to the Umayyad rulers’ governance. Poets such as Imran ibn Hittan used rhetorical questions and metaphors to criticize the rulers’ attachment to material wealth, framing it as a moral failing.
Furthermore, their poetry often highlighted Umayyad rulers' incompetence and cowardice in battle. By praising Khawarij warriors’ bravery while mocking Umayyad military leaders, they positioned their movement as strong and righteous. The depiction of figures such as al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf fleeing the battlefield added to their narrative of Umayyad weakness. This poetic strategy reinforced the idea that the Khawarij were divinely favored in their struggle against tyranny.
Ultimately, Khawarij poetry functioned as a powerful medium for ideological messaging. It conveyed their grievances, justified their uprisings, and promoted their vision of an ideal society free from Umayyad oppression. Through eloquent verse and vivid imagery, Khawarij poets articulated their resistance, shaping the historical perception of their movement and its place in Islamic discourse.
 
Conclusion
The analysis of Khawarij poetry, particularly that of the Sufriyyah sect, reveals its dual significance as both a form of literary expression and a historical record opposing Umayyad rule. These poets employed bold and direct language to challenge the legitimacy of the Umayyads, portraying their governance as oppressive, unjust, and morally corrupt. Through vivid depictions of tyranny and social injustice, Khawarij poetry served as a call to resistance, urging the masses to rise against the ruling elite.
Designed to evoke revolutionary sentiment and mobilize militant forces, these verses strategically stirred public emotions against the Umayyads. Furthermore, Khawarij poets deliberately distanced themselves from praising Umayyad rulers, instead celebrating the bravery and sacrifices of their own supporters. This distinction reinforced their ideological divide, highlighting the contrast between the Umayyads' self-proclaimed Islamic values and the Khawarij's interpretation of true religious principles.
By advocating rebellion and exposing the flaws of Umayyad governance, Khawarij poetry contributed to weakening the rulers' authority and legitimacy. As a historical and literary artifact, these poems provide invaluable insight into the resistance movements of the time, shaping the broader narrative of opposition against Umayyad rule.